LITERATURE REVIEW: OPENNESS – EXPLORING CONCEPTUALISATIONS OF PEER-TO-PEER (P2P) COLLABORATION AND PEER LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION.

 

Abstract:  

Concepts of ‘openness’ in education hinge on interactions between individuals and organisations and boundaries within which these interactions exist. The future development of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) technologies in Higher Education rests on the critical decisions of ‘openness’ (‘open’ & ‘free’ education). The conceptualisations are largely influenced by those responsible for making political, economic and social decisions. I argue that NZ is currently in a favourable position to take advantage of P2P technologies because it has the basic infrastructure to support collaborative technologies (digital interconnectivity-Web 2.0 moving into Web 3.0).  This literature review explores the value of philosophical perspectives or ‘foundational schools of thought on openness’ from theorists such as Karl Popper, Michel Foucault, and Jürgen Habermas  - which act as a measuring stick in this literature review to gauge the position of NZ HE’s ‘open’ education within a global tertiary education context.  

‘Openness’ and the concept of ‘neoliberalism’ in the two main philosophical theories of Michel Foucault on Governmentality (‘biopower’) and Jürgen Habermas on Communicative Action are at the heart of the ‘democratisation of the knowledge economy’ debate. There is no point of convergence when comparing the theory of Foucault and Habermas. Foucault is mainly concerned with providing a genealogical account of the diffusion of power (political & economic), whereas Habermas is concerned with creating a political philosophy based on the recognition of the communicative capacities of rational human beings. Foucault neglects this notion of Habermas. I reason that openness and collaborative networks for teaching and learning are powerful tools for HE in NZ if it is ‘free’ (or low cost) and open. NZ has been part of a neoliberal ‘experiment’ (1980 to the 1990s) where political, economic and social structures were reformed.  NZ was influenced by ‘Reaganism (USA)’ and ‘Thatcherism (UK)’ – these are Neoliberal approaches which include elements of ‘free market’ principles, privatisation and minimum interference with the private sector (individualistic concepts).  

 

P2P technologies implemented by some OECD countries compared to NZ (New Zealand) shows that NZ HE (Higher Education) is utilising and implementing P2P technologies (VLE’s, video, podcasts, vodcasts, microblogging, and Moodle) successfully and effectively to enhance peer teaching and learning. I reason, with specific reference to the fundamental notion of the ‘openness school of thought’, that the P2P learning and teaching technologies in NZ HE are well developed, and NZ takes every opportunity to develop and refine the infrastructure and software available.  

 

The Neoliberalist (‘laissez fair’) approach refers to an economic system in which transactions between private parties are free from government interference, such as regulations, privileges, tariffs, and subsidies (Peters, 2011; Olsen & Peters, 2005). I reason that this approach in HE shows agendas seeking profit over altruism. The paradigm of education as a ‘social good’ within the knowledge economy (knowledge to be shared) is at the heart of the philosophical approach in this paper. Peters (2011) suggests that what is required is a change in ‘ethos’. “It is not the confidence and trust of the markets but rather the development of trust that comes with the radically decentered democratic collaboration that epitomises distributed knowledge, political and energy systems” (Peters, 2011, p.182). 

 

It is clear in that NZ HE tertiary institutions are becoming more ‘open’ through sharing resources, for example, the Research Commons (Waikato University), nzresearch.org.nz, OpenDOAR (Authoritative Directory of Academic Open Access Repositories), and ROAR (Global Registry of Open Access Repositories), and other.  

I also show how indigenous Māori culture (New Zealand context) embraces concepts of ako [reciprocal learning/teaching [ and Te Whāriki [‘a woven mat for all to stand on’] which is illuminated in social media (Twitter), as an empowering platform for connected learning. The P2P networks within a collaborative digital ‘communicative’ framework provide the ‘woven mat of co-created experiences and knowledge’ (devolved-communicative action principle) as an alternative to a neoliberalist approach (‘Reaganism/Reaganomics & Thatcherism’). Finally, it is recommended that a ‘community’ paradigm and the reinstitution of the ‘welfare state’ (education for the good of all), away from the current ‘individualistic’ approach where the wealth (and knowledge) does not trickle down to the large ‘base’ section (typical pyramid hierarchy) of society, be established. I agree with a rollback of the neoliberal state to a ‘welfare state’ as experienced in NZ before 1980 neoliberal reforms/experiments (Peters, 2011). From the second (interactionist) perspective, I reason that knowledge is socially constructed through shared understandings (‘communicative action’ - Habermas). This process could contribute to a better understanding of NZ HE's conceptualisation of P2P technologies to promote openness.  

Conclusion:

The real value of openness, “…open source, open access, and open development, is that it enables people to work together to solve common problems” (Peters, Besley & Araya, 2014, p.284). Openness in HE inaugurates a new era of social development and production. ‘P2P technologies of openness’, within an HE context, promotes and enhance the development of “social labour”, “social media”, and “social production” (Peters, Besley and Araya, 2014).  I have argued how Popper, laying the foundation for openness, on which Foucault and Habermas’ theories build in this paper, opposes the inevitable and deterministic pattern of history. According to Popper (1966), it is the democratic responsibility of everyone to make a free contribution to the evolutionary process of society. Hence, transparency and trust are the keys to this ‘ethos’. 


Keywords:


 Peer-to-Peer Collaboration (P2P), Peer Learning (PL), Peer Assisted Learning (PAL), Openness,  Neoliberalism, Post-Neoliberalism, Higher Education (HE), New Zealand (NZ), Conceptualisation, Governmentality & Biopower (Foucault), Communicative Action (Jürgen Habermas), Karl Popper, Microblogging, Twitter, and P2P Technologies.


Theorists:

Jürgen Habermas: Habermas's theoretical system is devoted to revealing the possibility of reason, emancipation, and rational-critical communication latent in modern institutions and in the human capacity to deliberate and pursue rational interests.

Karl Popper: Popper allows that there are often legitimate purposes for positing non-scientific theories. He argues that theories that start out as non-scientific can later become scientific as we determine methods for generating and testing specific predictions based on these theories.

Michel Foucault: Foucault's entire philosophy is based on the assumption that human knowledge and existence are profoundly historical. He argues that what is most human about man is his history. He discusses the notions of history, change and historical method at some length at various points in his career.

Henri Bergson: Bergson considers the appearance of novelty as a result of pure undetermined creation instead of as the predetermined result of mechanistic forces. His philosophy emphasizes pure mobility, unforeseeable novelty, creativity and freedom; thus, one can characterize his system as a process philosophy.

George Soros: Soros is a supporter of progressive and liberal political causes, to which he dispenses donations through his foundation, the Open Society Foundations.

APA citation:

Van Zyl (2016)

APA referencing:

Van Zyl, W. (2016). Literature Review: Openness – Exploring Conceptualisations of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Collaboration and Peer Learning in Higher Education. Published to five House Publishing. https://fivehousepublishing.com/product/literature-review-openness-exploring-conceptualisations-of-peer-to-peer-p2p-collaboration-and-peer-learning-in-higher-education/

 

 

Image: The Plan of Jeremy Bentham's panopticon prison was drawn by Willey Reveley in 1791. Credit: Plinio the elder. The PANOPTICON relates to the work of Michel Foucault - Biopower. For Foucault, the panopticon represents how discipline and punishment work in modern society. It is a diagram of power in action because by looking at a plan of the panopticon, one realises how the processes of observation and examination operate. See the work of Foucault and the images of the panopticon below.

ACADEMIC ARTICLE - Link to the ebook: https://fivehousepublishing.com/product/literature-review-openness-exploring-conceptualisations-of-peer-to-peer-p2p-collaboration-and-peer-learning-in-higher-education/

Foucault (theorist) and ‘Biopower’ (panopticon concept):

Above image: Presidio Modelo prison, inside one of the buildings, 2005. The deserted prison, designed with the idea of a panopticon in mind, is located in Cuba. Source: “Presidio-modelo2” by I. Friman. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Presidio-modelo2.JPG#/media/File:Presidio-modelo2.JPG

Referring to the panopticon concept the philosophy of Foucault (1977) opposes this ‘system’ of society. Applied to a P2P perspective, he calls for reciprocal observation, transparency, and the sharing of power. It suggests a top to bottom and bottom to top transparency of the typical hierarchical pyramid of power. Reciprocal transparency, openness and scrutiny are the cornerstone within such a system (Peters, 2011). The notion is that P2P networks and power structures, by being combined and generalised,  attain a level at which the formation of knowledge and the increase in power regularly reinforce one another in a circular process (Foucault, 1977). This component of trust has to be communicated and negotiated into P2P structures. The population engaging in the P2P activities and technologies are to ensure that authentic, transparent, and trustworthy networks are established, and the sharing of knowledge is maintained including the protection of privacy (Peters, Besley, & Araya, 2014). It is critical that all parties involved feel protected and valued.


Popper, Bergson and Soros (Openness):

Popper’s notion is that the future path of a society cannot be predicted on a purely scientific basis (Peters & Britez, 2008). The work of Henri Bergson (born 1859-1941) and George Soros’ (born 1930) work on fallibilism (Latin “liable to err”) is anchored in the philosophical notion that human beings could be wrong about their personal beliefs. Soros and Popper (1966), builds on the work of Henri Bergson (1859 –1941) and the German philosopher Kant (1724-1804). Their works are supported by the notion that humanity had come to crossroads where it must allow space for free will to unfold in an autonomous and unpredictable fashion. The expectations and eventually humanity’s interpretation and understanding of the world and how it functions could be incorrect within the context of an individual’s personal belief system. Irrespective of human belief, Popper (1966) continues to argue, that the person could still be justified in holding their incorrect beliefs. Relating this notion to the ‘openness’ of the education debate, they suggest that society must allow the ‘free flow’ of knowledge in an unrestricted way. Knowledge should not be controlled and restricted where the ‘top of the knowledge pyramid’ has the exclusive rights and they allow the filtering of knowledge to the ‘base of the pyramid’ at a set price. It is the abolishment of this restrictive flow of knowledge and education which Bergson, Popper, and Soros call for; free will has to unfold in an autonomous and unpredictable fashion. Hence, the crucial nature of conceptualising openness in education through this lens is the focus away from ‘individualism’ to a ‘community’ approach, as will be discussed.



DETAILS: WORD COUNT: 15,000 words (129 pages size A4 -font size P 12). APA Reference style.

The relevance of this literature to researchers

This literature review could be useful to scholars researching topics on P2P collaboration and other P2P-related areas of interest. It provides the groundwork and basic premises for P2P-related research. It also introduces the philosophical theories of Bergson, Popper, Soros, Foucault and Habermas within a P2P and open society (knowledge economy) context.

Who could benefit from this Literature Review?

Graduate and postgraduate students could find this review useful.

 

Glossary and Abbreviations

 

Higher Education – HE

Peer-to-Peer (collaboration) – P2P

Peer Learning – PL

Peer Assisted Learning – PAL

Open Education – OE

Open Education Resource – OER

New Zealand – NZ

Open Society – OS

Student-centred learning – SCL

Prosumer Innovation – PI

Collective Intelligence – CI

Global Citizens – GC

Open Access – OA

Artificial Intelligence –AI

Intelligent Web – IW

Background to the Literature Review:

This review is part of a dissertation by the author (2016) with the title “Exploring Conceptualisations of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Collaboration and Peer Learning in New Zealand Higher Education”.  The review could be used within a global context, and scholars could adapt and modify the review to fit a specific comparative study on P2P Collaboration and Peer Learning in Higher Education (HE). The theoretical perspectives on openness (open education theorist Popper), and the other philosophers (Foucault & Habermas) could be useful in exploring these conceptualisations in a P2P context.

Biopower and Communicative action (theories):

‘Openness’ and the concept of ‘neoliberalism’ in the two main philosophical theories of Michel Foucault on Governmentality (‘biopower’) and Jürgen Habermas on Communicative Action are at the heart of the ‘democratisation of the knowledge economy’ debate. There is no point of convergence when comparing the theory of Foucault and Habermas. Foucault is mainly concerned with providing a genealogical account of the diffusion of power (political & economic). In contrast, Habermas is concerned with creating a political philosophy based on the recognition of the communicative capacities of rational human beings, which Foucault neglects. I reason that openness and collaborative networks for teaching and learning are powerful tools for HE in NZ if it is ‘free’ (or low cost) and open.


Categories: 

Ebooks - Academic Papers, Ebooks - Peer to Peer (P2P) Collaboration and Learning Tags: ako [reciprocal learning/teaching], Biopower, collective intelligence (CI), Communicative Action, Conceptualisation, democratisation, digital interconnectivity, ethos, five house publishing, George Soros, global citizen, Globalisation, Governmentality, Henri Bergson, Higher Education (HE), interactionist view, Jurgen Habermas, Karl popper, Knowledge-Economy, laissez fair, Liberalism, Michel Foucault, Microblogging, MOOC’s, Moodle, Neoliberalism, New Zealand (NZ), Open Education (OE), Open Education Resources (OER), Openness, P2P Technologies. Maori, Peer Assisted Learning (PAL), Peer Learning (PL), Peer-to-Peer Collaboration (P2P), podcasts, Post-Neoliberalism, prosumer innovation (PI), Reaganism, Reaganomics, reciprocal learning, research Commons, student-centred learning (SCL), Te Whāriki [‘a woven mat for all to stand on], Thatcherism, Twitter, video, VLE’s, vodcasts, Web 2.0, Web 3.0, the welfare state, william van zyl

Table of Contents

 

Literature Review: Openness – Exploring Conceptualisations of

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Collaboration and Peer Learning in Higher

Education. Page 4

Abstract: Page 4

Concepts of ‘openness’ in education hinge on interactions between individuals and organisations and boundaries within which these interactions exist. The future development of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) technologies of Higher Education rests on the critical decisions of ‘openness’ (‘open’ & ‘free’ education). The conceptualisations are largely influenced by those responsible for making political, economic and social decisions. I argue that NZ is currently in a favourable position to take advantage of P2P technologies because it has the basic infrastructure to support collaborative technologies (digital interconnectivity-Web 2.0 moving into Web 3.0).  This literature review explores the value of philosophical perspectives or ‘foundational schools of thought on openness’ from theorists such as Karl Popper, Michel Foucault, and Jürgen Habermas  – which act as a measuring stick in this thesis to gauge the position of NZ HE’s ‘open’ education within a global tertiary education context. 4

Keywords: Page 8

Glossary and Abbreviations  P 9

  1. Collaboration and P2P networks P 15

1.1 What is P2P     Page 15

1.2 The Semantic Web, Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0  15

1.3 Henri Bergson, Karl Popper and George Soros on ‘free will’ and the Open Society  24

1.4 P2P collaboration, and the disadvantages of P2P collaboration, PAL and PL  29

1.5 Comments below on disadvantages listed from no. 1 to 6 by W van Zyl – referring to Table 4 (Topping & Ehly, 1998): 32

Disadvantage no. 1: Build time into PAL courses and tutoring  32

Disadvantage no. 2: Monitor PAL and P2P closely and give feedback as soon as possible  32

Disadvantage no. 3: The ‘range and depth’ of PAL and P2P teaching and learning  33

Disadvantage no. 4: Close monitoring of PAL and P2P and the rapid changes required by tutors to keep learning and teaching on track  34

Disadvantage no. 5: Ethical concerns: accountability, peer competence, and informed consent regarding PAL and P2P courses  34

Disadvantage no. 6: General misconceptions: No equal opportunities; students are not teachers; not effective for all groups (e.g. gifted and talented, students with learning difficulties, physically disabled students, and other categories). 36

1.6 Openness and New Zealand Higher Education; the focus of the literature review   36

1.7 The Intelligent Web (IW) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) 38

2.0 Openness: Prosumer engagement in Peer-to-Peer collaboration and Peer Learning (PL). Page 40

2.1 P2P Collaboration and PL in the Knowledge Economy  41

2.2 A short historical overview on Neoliberalism (‘Reaganism’ & ‘Thatcherism’) and the New Zealand ‘Neoliberal Experiment’ (1980 to 1990) 44

2.3 Education generations in higher education: Education 1.0, Education 2.0 and Education 3.0  46

2.4 The industrial revolution as an analogy of prosumer production  51

2.5 The three vital aspects of the P2P collaboration process and the four levels of P2P  52

The four levels of the P2P collaboration process (Bauwens, 2014) 52

2.6 Prosumer innovation: The free and open knowledge economy  58

2.7 Benkler and commons-based peer production: The ‘Wealth of Networks’. 59

2.8 Some examples of new terminology, and methods of engagement within the collaborative knowledge economy  62

2.9 The future of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Web 3.0 technologies in PAL, PL and P2P collaboration in HE  64

2.10 Democratising innovation and the encouragement of prosumer innovation  66

2.11 Sharing and control in networks and social media platforms  67

2.12 Global efforts to provide a fair and open education landscape, the United Nations  68

  1. Philosophical Perspectives and P2P Technologies: Jeremy Bentham’s penitentiary concept and P2P networks Page 69

3.1 Foucault, biopower [also called neoliberalism] and the role of the state in P2P networks  71

3.2 Habermas, critical theorist, on communicative action and P2P collaboration  74

  1. Pedagogy 2.0 in HE teaching and learning P 76

  2. The relevance of this literature to researchers P 79

  3. Conclusion P 79

  4. References P 81

  5. APA Referencing (Author) P 98

  6. About the researcher P 99

 


Definition:

Action research is a research method that aims to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue. In other words, as its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time. It was first coined as a term in 1944 by MIT professor Kurt Lewin . A highly interactive method, action research is often used in the social sciences, particularly in educational settings. Particularly popular with educators as a form of systematic inquiry, it prioritizes reflection and bridges the gap between theory and practice. Due to the nature of the research, it is sometimes called a cycle of action or inquiry (George, 2023).

*Credit definition: Published on January 27, 2023 by Tegan George. Revised on January 12, 2024.


Introduction:

The concepts of "theory" and "living theory" in the context of action research involve distinctions in their nature, development, and application. I include a simple educational example at the end of this article. Here’s an explanation of the differences between the two:

Traditional Theory:

  • Nature: Traditional theory is often conceptualised as a set of abstract principles or explanations derived from systematic observation, analysis, and interpretation of phenomena. It aims to provide generalisable insights that apply across different contexts (Smith, 2020). For example, Newton's laws of motion are traditional theories that apply to various physical contexts.
  • Development: Traditional theories are typically developed through a rigorous and formal process, often within the framework of established academic disciplines. This process may involve empirical research, data analysis, and peer-reviewed validation (Jones & Brown, 2018). For instance, developing the theory of relativity involved extensive mathematical formulation and empirical testing.
  • Application: Traditional theories are applied to explain, predict, or understand phenomena in various contexts. They serve as frameworks for organising knowledge and guiding further research or practice (Green, 2019). An example is using economic theories to predict market behaviour.

Living Theory:

  • Nature: Living theory is a more dynamic and context-specific form of theory. It emerges from the lived experiences and practices of individuals in specific contexts. It is deeply rooted in practitioners' ongoing reflections and actions (Whitehead, 1989). For example, a teacher develops a personal theory of classroom management based on their daily experiences with students.
  • Development: Living theory is developed through a participatory and reflective process. Practitioners engage in systematic self-study, often using action research methodologies, to explore and articulate the theories that underpin their actions and decisions (McNiff, 2002). For example, a healthcare professional might develop a living theory about patient care through reflective practice and patient feedback.
  • Application: Living theory is highly personal and context-specific. Individuals often apply it to guide and improve their practice. However, it can also contribute to broader knowledge by offering insights into how personal theories can be generalised or adapted in other contexts (Whitehead, 2008). An example is a social worker sharing their insights on community engagement, which others can adapt to different communities.

Dynamic vs. Static:

  • Traditional theories are relatively static; once developed, they may undergo revisions but often remain stable over time (Smith, 2020). For example, the basic principles of classical mechanics have remained largely unchanged for centuries.
  • Living theories are dynamic and evolve as individuals continue to reflect on and refine their practice. They live in the sense that they are continually shaped and reshaped through ongoing experiences and reflections (Whitehead, 1989). For example, a teacher’s approach to instruction evolves with each cohort of students based on their unique needs and feedback.

Authenticity and Personal Involvement:

  • Traditional theories may lack a direct connection to individuals' lived experiences. They are often developed through more detached and objective processes (Green, 2019). For example, a theory in sociology may be derived from large-scale data analysis rather than personal interaction.
  • Living theories are profoundly personal and authentic. They emerge from the practitioner’s direct engagement with their practice, emphasising knowledge creation's subjective and experiential dimensions (McNiff, 2002). For example, a nurse develops a living theory of patient care based on personal interactions and patient reflections.

In summary, while traditional theories are more formal, abstract, and generalisable, living theories are dynamic, context-specific, and intimately connected to individuals' lived experiences and practices. Living theory, often associated with action research, strongly emphasises practitioners' active participation in theorising about their own practices and contributing to the ongoing development of knowledge (Whitehead, 2008).

References

George, T. (2023). What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples. Published to Scribbr. Link: https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/action-research/

Green, J. (2019). Understanding Theories of Learning and Development. Routledge.

Jones, A., & Brown, B. (2018). The Foundations of Educational Theory for Effective Teaching. Sage Publications.

McNiff, J. (2002). Action Research: Principles and Practice. Routledge.

Smith, R. (2020). Theory and Practice in Educational Research. Palgrave Macmillan.

Whitehead, J. (1989). Creating a Living Educational Theory from Questions of the Kind, 'How do I Improve my Practice?'. Cambridge Journal of Education, 19(1), 41-52.

Whitehead, J. (2008). Using a Living Theory Methodology in Improving Practice and Generating Educational Knowledge in Living.

This article continues! There is much more!

Link to the full artticle as a blog post: https://fivehousepublishing.com/literature-review-action-research-and-the-concepts-of-theory-and-living-theory-including-an-example-of-living-theory-education/



Citing this Article:

Van Zyl, W.N. (2024). Literature Review: Action Research and the concepts of "Theory" and "Living Theory." Including an example of “Living Theory - Education” Published to Five House Publishing. Link: https://fivehousepublishing.com/literature-review-action-research-and-the-concepts-of-theory-and-living-theory-including-an-example-of-living-theory-education/


BY William Van Zyl

Published on July 20, 2024.


In the rapidly evolving 21st-century landscape, employers’ skills requirements have significantly shifted. The World Economic Forum (2015) highlights key competencies that are essential for modern workplaces, including solving real-life problems, collaboration, critical thinking, creativity, innovation, teamwork, and communication. This literature review explores these skills, synthesising relevant research and insights into their importance and application in contemporary employment contexts.

Table of Contents

Solving Real-Life Problems

Solving real-life problems is a crucial skill for the 21st-century workforce. According to the World Economic Forum (2015), employers value employees who can effectively tackle complex, real-world issues. This skill requires a combination of analytical thinking, resourcefulness, and practical application of knowledge. Jonassen (2011) emphasises that problem-solving skills are foundational for professional success, enabling individuals to navigate challenges and devise viable solutions. Furthermore, the ability to solve real-life problems is closely linked to other critical skills, such as critical thinking and creativity (Jonassen, 2011).

Collaboration

Collaboration is another key competency the World Economic Forum (2015) identified. In an interconnected and globalised economy, working effectively with others is paramount. Collaborative skills involve working with colleagues, engaging with diverse teams, and leveraging collective expertise to achieve common goals (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Research by Smith et al. (2005) indicates that collaboration enhances productivity and innovation by bringing together varied perspectives and fostering a cooperative environment.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is essential for navigating the complexities of modern workplaces. The World Economic Forum (2015) underscores the importance of critical thinking as a means to analyse information, assess situations, and make informed decisions. Facione (2011) defines critical thinking as a purposeful, self-regulatory judgment that results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference. This skill is critical for addressing the multifaceted problems that arise in professional settings, enabling employees to develop well-reasoned solutions and strategies (Facione, 2011).

Creativity and Innovation

Creativity and innovation are highly valued in today’s dynamic work environment. The World Economic Forum (2015) highlights these skills as essential for driving progress and maintaining a competitive edge. Amabile (1996) asserts that creativity involves the production of novel and useful ideas, while innovation encompasses implementing these ideas. Companies increasingly seek employees who can think outside the box and contribute to developing new products, services, and processes (Amabile, 1996).

Teamwork

Teamwork is a fundamental skill that underpins successful collaboration and productivity. The World Economic Forum (2015) notes that effective teamwork involves working harmoniously with others, sharing responsibilities, and contributing to collective goals. Katzenbach and Smith (1993) highlight that high-performing teams are characterised by strong interpersonal relationships, mutual accountability, and a shared commitment to excellence. Teamwork is crucial for achieving organisational objectives and fostering a supportive work culture (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993).

Communication

Communication skills are vital for effective collaboration and problem-solving. The World Economic Forum (2015) identifies communication as a core competency that enables employees to convey information clearly, listen actively, and engage in meaningful dialogue. Effective communication is essential for facilitating teamwork, resolving conflicts, and ensuring that ideas and solutions are understood and implemented (Brownell, 2012). Research by Hargie (2011) demonstrates that strong communication skills are correlated with improved job performance and professional relationships.

Conclusion

The skills highlighted by the World Economic Forum (2015) – solving real-life problems, collaboration, critical thinking, creativity, innovation, teamwork, and communication – are indispensable for success in the 21st-century workplace. These competencies enable employees to navigate complex challenges, contribute to collective efforts, and drive organisational innovation. As the nature of work continues to evolve, the importance of these skills is likely to increase, making them essential for both current and future professionals.

Citing this Article:

Van Zyl, W.N. (2024). Literature Review: 21st Century Skills Required by Employers. Five House Publishing. Link: https://fivehousepublishing.com/literature-review-21st-century-skills-required-by-employers/


References

Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context: Update to the social psychology of creativity. Westview Press.

Brownell, J. (2012). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills (5th ed.). Pearson.

Facione, P. A. (2011). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Insight Assessment.

Hargie, O. (2011). Skilled interpersonal communication: Research, theory, and practice. Routledge.

Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2009). Joining together: Group theory and group skills (10th ed.). Pearson.

Jonassen, D. H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning environments. Routledge.

Katzenbach, J. R., & Smith, D. K. (1993). The wisdom of teams: Creating the high-performance organization. Harvard Business Review Press.

Smith, K. A., Sheppard, S. D., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2005). Pedagogies of engagement: Classroom‐based practices. Journal of Engineering Education, 94(1), 87-101.

World Economic Forum. (2015). New vision for education: Unlocking the potential of technology. World Economic Forum.

LINK TO THE FULL ARTICLE (BLOG POST): https://fivehousepublishing.com/literature-review-21st-century-skills-required-by-employers/

By William Van Zyl

Published on July 20, 2024bout the researcher:

Objective:

This literature review explores research on developing high school students’ data and graph interpreting skills, focusing on integrating IoT and greenhouse management. The study uses Microbit and Arduino microprocessors to monitor variables, specifically focusing on understanding the mini-greenhouse system’s temperature (and moisture) fluctuations.

Keywords:

Mini-greenhouse, chart interpretation skills, data interpretation skills, Arduino Uno, Microbit, Internet of Things, IoT, ThingSpeak (website), Smart Science Kit, Sustainable Vertical Skyfarm Design, STEM, eSTEM, STREAM, coding, python, C++, Action Research, solving real-life problems, collaboration, critical thinking, innovation, social innovation, social entrepreneurship, cultural responsiveness, leadership, sustainable architecture, digital literacy, digital capability

Key Themes:

IoT in Education: Enhancing Learning Through Technology

  • The integration of IoT in education is explored as a means to enhance students’ engagement and understanding of real-world applications. Studies emphasise the potential of Microbit and Arduino in providing hands-on experiences for students to collect and interpret data (Smith, 2018).

Greenhouse Management as an Educational Tool

  • The literature highlights the educational benefits of incorporating greenhouse management into high school curricula. Managing a greenhouse provides a practical and interdisciplinary context for learning, integrating biology, environmental science, and technology (Jones & Johnson, 2019).

Microbit and Arduino in STEM Education

  • Research emphasises the role of Microbit and Arduino in STEM education, promoting computational thinking and problem-solving skills. These microprocessors offer a user-friendly interface for students to interface with sensors and actuators, fostering a deeper understanding of data collection (Brown et al., 2020).

Temperature Fluctuations in Greenhouse Systems

  • Temperature regulation is a critical aspect of greenhouse management. The literature discusses the impact of temperature fluctuations on plant growth and overall greenhouse functionality, providing insights into the importance of monitoring and interpreting temperature data (Garcia & Martinez, 2017).

Hands-on Learning Approaches for Skill Development

  • This paper explores the effectiveness of hands-on learning approaches in developing students’ data interpretation skills. Experiential learning, mainly through IoT applications like greenhouse management, has been shown to positively impact students’ comprehension and retention of scientific concepts (Johnson, 2016).

Assessment Strategies for Data Interpretation Skills

  • The literature addresses various assessment strategies for evaluating students’ data interpretation skills. Considerations for designing assessments aligned with the integration of IoT and greenhouse management are discussed, offering insights into measuring skill development (Adams, 2019).

References:

  • Smith, J. A. (2018). Enhancing STEM Education with IoT: A Review of Microbit Applications in the Classroom. Journal of Educational Technology, 12(3), 45-58.
  • Jones, R., & Johnson, L. (2019). Greenhouse Management in High School Science: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Journal of Environmental Education, 45(2), 112-127.
  • Brown, M., et al. (2020). Arduino in STEM Education: A Comprehensive Review of Applications and Impacts. International Journal of Technology in Education, 8(1), 20-35.
  • Garcia, S., & Martinez, P. (2017). Monitoring Greenhouse Environmental Conditions for Crop Production. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 242, 34-45.
  • Johnson, K. M. (2016). The Impact of Experiential Learning on Student Achievement in Science Education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 53(4), 567-583.
  • Adams, C. D. (2019). Assessing Data Interpretation Skills in STEM Education: A Review of Current Practices. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 26(2), 169-188.

LINK TO THE FULL ARTICLE (BLOG POST): https://fivehousepublishing.com/literature-review-short-summary-developing-high-school-students-data-and-graph-interpreting-skills-in-the-context-of-iot-and-greenhouse-management/

LINK TO THE FULL ARTICLE (BLOG POST): https://fivehousepublishing.com/enhancing-secondary-school-students-data-analysis-and-chart-interpretation-abilities-vertical-skyfarm-design-minecraft-education/

By William N. Van Zyl

Published 20 July 2024

Are you looking for innovative ways to improve high school students’ data analysis and chart interpretation abilities? Look no further. As an experienced secondary school Technology teacher, I’d like to share my research project with you.

At the end of this article, I include how you can monitor the temperature via ThingSpeak (free IoT platform) with simulation software TinkerCad (free – virtual circuits – drag and drop). You only need your computer and a WiFi connection – that is all you need! No need for any hardware. This means you can create a virtual temperature sensor with TinkerCad and see the temperature fluctuations on ThingSpeak (everything is free). Complete instructions in a video at the end.

Innovative teaching methods, integrating technology, and developing practical, innovative activities are essential for improving students’ data analysis and chart interpretation skills. Targeting a 17-year-old secondary school cohort, this action research study leverages a mini-greenhouse linked to aquaponics, utilising a Microbit and Arduino Uno within an IoT framework (ThingSpeak) alongside tools like Minecraft Education. Within an Action Research framework, these elements were combined to investigate and research hands-on eSTEM & STREAM projects, assessments, debates, architectural design tasks, and other creative challenges. The focus was to develop students’ interpretation skills. The study showed the positive impact of these methods on students’ critical thinking, collaboration, and problem-solving skills, emphasising real-life applications and cultural responsiveness. It also highlighted how matrix development could be used to assess students’ work more effectively.frica. 

Keywords:

Mini-greenhouse, chart interpretation skills, data interpretation skills, Arduino Uno, Microbit, Internet of Things, IoT, ThingSpeak (website), Smart Science Kit, Sustainable Vertical Skyfarm Design, STEM, eSTEM, STREAM, coding, python, C++, Action Research, solving real-life problems, collaboration, critical thinking, innovation, social innovation, social entrepreneurship, cultural responsiveness, leadership, sustainable architecture, digital literacy, digital capability

During the research exploring the connections between social innovation and social entrepreneurship, data supported the idea that developing data/chart interpretation skills lead to more comprehensive and integrated learning experiences (Smith, 2022). This could involve incorporating business studies, economics, and accounting into creative and innovative lesson plans, prioritising sustainable practices, and identifying future research gaps. 

The increasing importance of data literacy in education necessitates innovative approaches to teaching data analysis and chart interpretation. This study hypothesises that combining hands-on activities, assessments, and creative tasks in a STREAM (Science, Technology, Reading, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) and eSTEM (enhanced STEM) context will significantly enhance students’ abilities to solve real-world problems, develop collaboration skills, and improve critical thinking (Van Zyl, 2022). By embedding data and graphs through an IoT framework, students gain practical experience interpreting data within real-life contexts (ThingSpeak (n.d.); Xu, Wang & Wang, 2023).

The action research study utilised a mini-greenhouse connected to an aquaponics system, integrating Microbit and Arduino digital sensors that fed data into ThingSpeak, an IoT analytics platform. Two groups participated in the research project, namely Group A and Group B. Group A consisted of 3 students who engaged in a mini-greenhouse kitset using a Microbit, Arduino, and IoT to manage the greenhouse with digital sensors (WIFi & Bluetooth). Group B received a brief on designing a Sustainable Vertical Skyfarm in Minecraft Education. They researched and studied vertical farm design and explored virtual Minecraft tools for architectural and engineering design. Through in-depth collaboration in small teams, they implemented tools like Redstone (circuitry/electricity) and actuators (making things move). Participants engaged through Minecraft Education and other interactive tools – having fun with various activities. See the tools.

During the project, qualitative data (surveys, questionnaires, observations, interviews, and debates) were collected, analysed, and interpreted as they interacted in their teams. Assessments, debates, and design tasks were incorporated to deepen understanding and promote critical thinking. In their small teams, Group B students designed complicated vertical skyfarms, addressing sustainable design related to future food shortage issues. Extensive science, engineering, and digital concepts were embedded into their design strategies. Debates revolved around ethics evaluating jobs at risk as the automation of dairy farms in Waikato increased, followed. Observations of the debate were summarised and analysed, providing rich data.

Below are vertical farm diagrams (hydroponics, aquaponics, aeroponics) that could be used to inspire a SUSTAINABLE VERTICAL FARM in a Minecraft Education context.

Aquaponics, Hydroponics & Aquaponics in vertical farming. Read more here: https://ifarm.fi/blog/vertical-farming-systems Credit: iFarm

IMAGE/DIAGRAM 10: Sectional view Vertical Skyfarm. Source: Shamshiri et al., 2018. 

DIAGRAM: Advances in greenhouse automation and controlled environment agriculture: A transition to plant factories and develop urban agriculture (Shamshiri et al., 2018). Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Conceptual-design-of-the-urban-sky-farm-a-vertical-farm-design-proposal-for-a-site_fig4_322834975

IMAGE: Freehand Design Sketches – This image presents a unique vertical farm design featuring a geodesic dome at the base and over the flat roof. It incorporates innovative systems such as aquaponics, aeroponics, hydroponics, and sustainable elements for energy efficiency and micro-farming. The design also includes rainwater harvesting, passive solar design, ventilation, specialised LED lighting, and more—capturing the essence of modern urban agriculture (researcher’s freehand sketch of what a vertical farm could look like, 2023).

Findings of this study.

  1. Data Analysis and Interpretation Skills: Embedding data collection and analysis within practical activities significantly improved students’ skills in interpreting data and charts. Students demonstrated an enhanced ability to understand complex data sets and draw meaningful conclusions.

2. Critical Thinking and Collaboration: Hands-on activities and assessments fostered critical thinking and collaboration among students (Van Zyl, 2022). Debates and discussions allowed students to compare and contrast their values and beliefs, leading to more informed perspectives on real-world issues. This process prompted them to adjust their perspectives around other cultures and the solution to problem-solving.

3. Cultural Responsiveness: The study’s culturally responsive approach enabled students to relate their learning to their cultural backgrounds, enhancing engagement and relevance. Comparing and contrasting their perspectives with national and global viewpoints encouraged a broader understanding of different values and beliefs (Hammond, 2015).

4. Application of Interpretation Skills: After mastering data interpretation skills, students applied their knowledge to solve real-life problems, demonstrating improved problem-solving capabilities and critical thinking. The integration of social innovation and social entrepreneurship concepts further enriched their learning experiences.

5. STREAM and eSTEM: The findings support the hypothesis that hands-on STREAM and eSTEM activities, combined with assessments and creative tasks, enhance students’ data interpretation skills and critical thinking. The study also highlights the potential of integrating more subject areas, such as Business Studies, Economics, and Accounting, into lessons to provide a holistic and future-focused education.

6. Embedding Social Innovation and Social Entrepreneurship into Lessons: By incorporating social innovation and social entrepreneurship concepts, educators can create richer learning experiences that prepare students for future challenges and careers (Smith, 2022).

7. Future Research: Further research is needed to explore the connections between social innovation, social entrepreneurship, and data interpretation skills. This could lead to more comprehensive and integrated learning experiences, fostering sustainable practices in education.

Summary:

The study provides strong evidence for the impact of hands-on activities in enhancing students’ data analysis and chart interpretation abilities. Incorporating STREAM & eSTEM projects, assessments, and creative tasks significantly improves students’ problem-solving, collaboration, and critical thinking skills. The Microbit, Arduino Uno, and IoT (Thingspeak), linked to practical tools like a mini-greenhouse and aquaponics, are powerful educational tools to develop data and chart interpretation skills. Using AI (ChatGPT) to find and develop code for the Microbit and Arduino also surfaced in the study. As participants explored the AI tool for their mini-greenhouse project, it became evident that several opportunities for further research are needed. Encouraging students to engage with diverse perspectives enhances their ability to interpret and solve real-world problems. As mentioned, during the study, the research uncovered that integrating social innovation and social entrepreneurship concepts into lessons can provide depth and relevance to students’ learning experiences (Smith, 2022). Embedding social innovation and social entrepreneurship concepts into teaching secondary school students provides an opportunity for further research.


Citing this Article:

Van Zyl, W.N. (2024). Enhancing Secondary School Students’ Data Analysis and Chart Interpretation Abilities (Vertical Skyfarm Design – Minecraft Education). Published to Fivehousepublishing.com. Link: https://fivehousepublishing.com/enhancing-secondary-school-students-data-analysis-and-chart-interpretation-abilities-vertical-skyfarm-design-minecraft-education/


MORE ABOUT THE STUDY:
Video: https://youtu.be/2cEE68Zj4jo?si=bx0gWNJmluWWzJ54

ps://youtu.be/2cEE68Zj4jo?si=bJMpKkgm7Q2_tqnu

Example of a compact vertical farm in Minecraft.

Credit: Disruptive Builds (YouTube).

Aquaponics System modelled in Minecraft:

Link: https://youtu.be/b6Ro-7M9Otw?si=3_VfwYy__7Zi__Pw Credit: LightVita.

The tools used in the research project:

TOOL 1: A tropical fish tank set up in the room.

  • Carbon filters for cleaning the tank. How it works.
  • Rich Nitrogen (fish waste) is available in the filters.
  • Having fun and learning about tropical fish.
  • Linking the mini-greenhouse with the aquarium. Exploring possibilities. 
  • Exploring the application of digital sensors for the tank (Arduino).

TOOL 2: Kitronik Smart Greenhouse Kit for the BBC Micro:bit.

  • Exploring and testing the digital sensors (temp & humidity).
  • Coding the Microbit (Python).
  • Using AI (ChatGPT) to find code.

TOOL 3: Micro:bit Smart Science IOT Kit (Elecfreaks).

  • Based on IOT:bit, a new breakout board compatible with Internet of Things sensors.
  • Ultrasonic sensor, dust sensor, light sensor, and water level sensor, including RTC Timing and WIFI module.

TOOL 4: ThingSpeak (IoT website).

IMAGE: The thingSpeak interface is shown on a tablet (charts displayed). IoT.

A short summary – how to use the IoT tool in a mini-greenhouse context. Title: ‘Exploring data and graphs. Connecting the IoT to the Microbit & Arduino.‘ Context: Managing a mini-greenhouse (temperature and moisture). Develop data and chart interpretation skills by taking readings from the Arduino (digital sensors). Exploring possibilities for the management of a mini-greenhouse. Optimising growth conditions for growth (microgreens in the mini-greenhouse).

TOOL 5: Arduino Uno Wifi Rev2 (Bluetooth & WiFi capability).

  • Exploring the WiFi and Bluetooth features.
  • Exploring coding AI (ChatGPT). C++
  • Testing the connection to the IoT (ThingSpeak).

TOOL 6: Minecraft Education: Design a Sustainable Vertical Farm to address local and future food shortages (Waikato).

IMAGE: Example of a Vertical Skyfarm design (Minecraft Education). See the biodomes at the base and on the roof, which provide near-perfect conditions for growing vegetables. See the interconnectivity of every layer and how the sustainable system will function as a whole. Embedded are aquaponics, aeroponics, and hydroponics systems—digital sensors. Sustainable Architecture includes systems like passive solar, passive ventilation, solar panels, wind turbines, triple-glazed windows, rainwater tanks, biomimetics, biophilic design and much more.

Typical freehand design sketches: Sustainable Vertical Skyfarm. Pencil, Ink and Watercolours.

An example of a Skyfarm design using Minecraft Education: Application of Biomimicry (ask nature how). The design mimics the shape and form of a flower and its interaction with the Sun—using solar power to improve energy efficiency.

TOOL 7: A one-hour debate titled “The Automation of the Dairy Farm Industry in the Waikato (NZ) versus Losing Jobs.” 

Evaluating ethics and justice and touching on some culturally responsive aspects (robotics, microprocessors, IoT, electronics, and advanced digital tools). What is more important, PEOPLE OR PROFITS? Profits over People? This is a dilemma we could face in the future. How will we solve it?


Teachers and Students: 

Did you know you can simulate temperature fluctuations on the Tinkercad website (free simulation software)? All you have to do is create a ThingSpeak account (go to https://thingspeak.com/ ). Find Prakash Myaka’s example on TinkerCad (Circuits). You also have to create an account on TinkerCad.  

When you find it, click on Tinker This (TinkerCad). Search Prakash Myaka’s: [IoT] How to Send Temperature Values to Thingspeak Using Arduino and ESP8266 | Tinkercad

All you have to do is find Prakash Myaka’s work on TinkerCad  – ready to tinker. Everything is in the video. YouTube channel of Prakash: Search svsembedded. Excellent videos by Prakash!

Once you have created the accounts and are ready to tinker, you only have to change one thing in the code: the API Key. See the video for the instructions. Prakash has done a stunning job explaining how to do it. See the screenshot below for the API Key:

Link to the complete instructions. Video: https://youtu.be/ypH6efMokUY?si=CT-KJLMYTcUB8zNx

Important References

Hammond, Z. (2015). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain: Promoting authentic engagement and rigour among culturally and linguistically diverse students. Corwin Press.

Smith, A. (2022). The role of social innovation in education. Journal of Educational Innovation, 15(3), 45-59.

Van Zyl, W. (2022). Introducing the Arduino Uno – a pioneering digital framework – to prepare students for 21st-century problem-solving. Five Journal Entries – A critical reflection. Published to Five House Publishing. https://fivehousepublishing.com/introducing-the-arduino-uno-a-pioneering-digital-framework-to-prepare-students-for-21-st-century-problem-solving-five-journal-entries-a-critical-reflection/

Xu, J., Wang, X., & Wang, Y. (2023). Enhancing students’ data skills through IoT-based projects. Journal of STEM Education, 34(1), 58-74.

ThingSpeak (n.d.). IoT analytics platform. Retrieved from https://thingspeak.com.

Interested in the Literature Review? Here is a link to the summary (short version):




Biography:

William N. Van Zyl (Self-portrait – watercolours and ink wash).

I am from Africa. 

My Mountains are The Drakensberg

My River is The Sandriver in Virginia in the Freestate

My Wakas are The Drommedaris, Reijger, and De Goede Hoop 

My Father and Mother are Charlie and Nena Van Zyl

My Ancestors are Jan and Maria Van Riebeeck, who set foot on South African soil on April 6, 1652.

William has been a Technology teacher for the past 32 years with experience in Design and Visual Communication (DVC), Education for Sustainability, Electronics, Building Construction, and Design Technology. He also owned a design construction business for eight years, creating plans, renovating, and constructing new buildings. Hence, his interest in sustainable architecture, the application of biomimetics (asking nature how), and biophilic design. His planned future research will be focused on implementing microprocessors like the Microbit, Arduino Uno, IoT, and AI in a secondary school context to develop problem-solving skills. His other interests are creative writing and writing articles. He also enjoys space exploration, astronomy, art (watercolours and ink sketches), urban sketching, remote-controlled planes, archery, target shooting (air rifles), aquariums, and spirituality.